According to Korean Buddhist references, we should focus on three historical books which are Samguksagi (三國史記, History of the Three Kingdoms), Haedong Ggoseungjeon (海東高僧傳; The Lives of Eminent Korean Monks) and Samgukyusa (三國遺事; Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms).

  Samguksagi (三國史記, History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The Samguksagi is written in Classical Chinese, the written language of the literati of ancient Korea, and its compilation was ordered by Goryeo’s King Injong (r. 1122-1146) and undertaken by the government official and historian Kim Busik (金富軾) and a team of junior scholars. It was completed in 1145. It is well known in Korea as the oldest surviving chronicle of Korean history.

   The Haedong Goseungjeon (translated most commonly as the “Lives of Eminent Korean Monks”) was a compilation of mostly Korean Buddhist hagiographies, notably of famous monks from the Three Kingdoms period of Korean history. It was compiled by the monk Gakhun (覺訓) (dates unknown) by order of the Goryeo King Gojongin in 1215. Although Gakhun was working in the tradition of Chinese Buddhist historiography (which had a long tradition of compiling lives of eminent monks), as was the case with the compilation of the Samguk Sagi and Samguyusa, the composing of the Haedong Goseungjeon was meant to promote native exemplars, in this sense of Buddhist piety. It also served to bring prominence and merit to the court that ordered its compilation.

   The work, along with the Samguk Sagi and the Samguk Yusa, comprises of the most important sources for the Three Kingdoms period. The monk Il-yeon consulted the work some half a century later when compiling his Samguk Yusa. It was long thought that the work was lost, until portions of it were rediscovered at a Buddhist temple in Seongju in the early twentieth century. Only two of probably more than ten volumes have survived. The extant volumes include biographies of eighteen famous and not-so-famous Buddhist monks from Goguryeo and Silla, as well as India and China. Unfortunately, some of the most famous Buddhist figures of the Three Kingdoms period are not included (namely Wonhyo) though they were presumably included in the missing volumes.

   Not much is known of the work’s chief compiler, except that he served as the chief abbot of Yeontongsa, i.e. the Yeong Tong Temple (靈通寺) in the city of Kaeseong, North Korea, which was then the capital city of Goryeo. His deeds go unrecorded in the Goryeosa (History of Goryeo). The work was translated into English by Peter H. Lee in 1969.

   Samguk Yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) is a collection of legends, folktales and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea (Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla), as well as to other periods and states before, during and after the Three Kingdoms period. It is the earliest possible record of the Dangun legend, which records the founding of Gojoseon as the first Korean nation.

Il-yeon (1206–1289) was a Buddhist monk and All-Enlightened National Preceptor (普覺國師) during the Goryeo Dynasty of Korea. His birth name was Kim Gyeong-myeong (金景明), and his Courtesy name was Hoe-yeon (晦然).

   He became a monk at Muryangsa Temple at the age of nine, and passed the Seon national examination at 22; at 54 he was given the rank of Great Teacher. When he was seventy-eight, King Chungyeol offered him a position of rank and tried to make him National Preceptor, but Il-yeon declined. The king again appointed him National Preceptor, and Il-yeon came down to the capital Kaeseong (then Gaegyeong), but soon returned to the mountains on the pretext that his aged mother was sick. On the eighth day of the seventh month in 1289, he held an interview with various monks, and then died.

   Il-yeon is known as a prolific writer, and according to the inscription on his tombstone he wrote some 80 volumes on Buddhist topics. But today only one book by him survives: the Samguk Yusa, which is not mentioned in the inscription at all.

Buddhist philosophy in Korean Buddhism has many schools which are Yogacara (唯識), Avatamsaka Sutra (華嚴經) etc. 

Korean Buddhist monks traveled to China or India in order to study Buddhism in the late Three Kingdoms Period, especially in the 6^th century. In 526, the monkgyeomik (謙益) from Baekje traveled via the southern sea route to India to learn Sanskrit and study the Vinaya. The monk Paya (波若; 562–613?) from Goguryeo is said to have studied under the Tiantai master Zhiyi. Other Korean monks of the period brought back numerous scriptures from abroad and conducted missionary activity throughout Korea. Following different schools of thought developed in Korea during these early times:

• the Samlon(三論宗) or East Asian Madhymaka school focused on Madhyamaka doctrine;
• the Gyeyul (戒律宗, or Vinaya in Sanskrit) school was mainly concerned with the study and implementation of sila or “moral discipline”;
• the Yeolban (涅槃宗, or Nirvana in Sanskrit) school based on the themes of the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra
• the Wonyung (圓融宗, or Yuanrong in Chinese) school formed towards the end of the Three Kingdoms Period. This school led to the actualization of the metaphysics of interpenetration as found in the Avatamsaka Sutra and was considered the premier school, especially among the educated aristocracy; and,
• the Hwaeom (華嚴宗 or Huayan school) was the longest lasting of the “imported” schools. It had strong ties with the Beopseong (法性宗), an indigenous Korean school of thought.

   The date of the first mission from Korea to Japan is unclear, but it is reported that a second detachment of scholars was sent to Japan upon invitation by the Japanese rulers in 577. The strong Korean influence on the development of Buddhism in Japan continued through the Unified Silla period. It was not until the 8^th century that independent study by Japanese monks began in significant numbers.

Late Goryeo

   The general trend of Buddhism in the latter half of the Goryeo period witnessed a decline due to corruption, and the rise of strong anti-Buddhist political and philosophical sentiment. However, this period of relative decadence would nevertheless produce some of Korea’s most renowned Seon masters. Three important monks of this period, who figured prominently in charting the future course of Korean Seon, were contemporaries and friends: Gyeonghan Baeg’un (景閑白雲; 1298–1374), Taego Bou (太古普愚; 1301–1382) and Naong Hyegeun (懶翁慧勤; 1320–1376). All three went to Yuan China to learn the hwadu practice of the Linji school (traditional Chinese: 臨濟; Korean: Imje) that had been popularized by Jinul. All three returned and established the sharp, confrontational methods of the Imje school in their own teaching. Each of the three was also said to have had hundreds of disciples, such that this new infusion into Korean Seon brought about a considerable effect.

Despite the Imje influence, which was generally considered to be anti-scholarly in nature, Gyeonghan and Naong, under the influence of Jinul and the traditional tongbulgyo tendency, showed an unusual interest in scriptural study, as well as a strong understanding of Confucianism and Taoism, due to the increasing influence of Chinese philosophy as the foundation of official education. From this time, a marked tendency for Korean Buddhist monks, the “three teachings” exponents appeared.

   A significant historical event of the Goryeo period is the production of the first woodblock edition of the Tripiṭaka called the Tripitaka Koreana. Two editions were made, the first one was completed from 1210 to 1231, and the second one from 1214 to 1259. The first edition was destroyed in a fire during an attack by the Mongols in 1232, but the second edition is still in existence at Haeinsa in Gyeongsang. This edition of the Tripitaka was of high quality and served as the standard version of the Tripitaka in East Asia for almost 700 years.

1. Modern Society and Buddhist Roles

   Starting in the 1950s, Syngman Rhee and others worked to further divide and weaken the Buddhist Sangha in the country. Rhee campaigned in 1954 against the so-called “Japanized Buddhists”. Western education and scholarship, and the empowerment of women and the poor, caused divisions among Koreans. Specifically, a deep rift opened between married priests and celibate monks, a carryover from Japanese Buddhism’s influence during the occupation period, though there had been calls for an end to celibacy from some Korean monks before Japan’s annexation of the Korean peninsula. The differences were so great that fist fights over the control of temples became frequent. Monks, mostly belonging to the celibate Jogye order, threatened to kill themselves. Many of them were against the married clergy. As the Buddhist riots continued, the influence of Buddhism lessened. Buddhism continued to lose followers to Christian missionaries, who were able to capitalize on these weaknesses.

   From the 1960s onward, Buddhism has grown considerably, through the formation of independent lay associations (that is, not funded or affiliated to the main orders), with many focused on youths, particularly to propagate and evangelize Buddhist teachings, fellowship and spiritual development, based on the Protestant model. These adaptations have modernized Buddhism in South Korea. Moreover, the South Korean government began devoting substantial funds to restore and reconstruct historic Buddhist temples, helping to revive Buddhism in the country. President Park Chung-hee unsuccessfully attempted during his rule (1961–1979) to settle the dispute by building a pan-national Buddhist organization.

   It was in 1970 that Korean Buddhism split into a fully celibate order which retained the name “Jogye” and the “Taego” order that includes both celibate and married clergy. The Taego order retained the traditional red kasa, whereas the Jogye order changed their kasa to brown to visually differentiate the two orders. Both orders continue to use the Dharmaguptaka Pratimoksha, the lineage of vows for monks and nuns taken in China and Vietnam, though Taego monks have the option of returning the vow of celibacy. When the Jogye order was founded, the government only recognized a small group of celibate Seon practitioners as “legitimate,” thus all of the ritual specialists remained with the Taego order.

In the 1980s, President Chun Doo-hwan, a Methodist, adopted anti-Buddhist policies and attempted to restrict Buddhist activities. During his administration, many historic temples were converted into tourist resorts, which deprived temples of their autonomy, as these “national parks” were government-run. To Buddhists, the construct of a state-protecting Buddhism (護國佛敎, Hoguk Bulgyo) had vanished, which served to radicalize a generation of Buddhists, including monks and laity and propelled them to start a movement called Minjung Buddhism (民衆佛敎, “practical Buddhism” or “Buddhism for the masses”). This modernization emphasized ordinary people and was a reaction to aggressive Christian proselytization in Korea.

   From the mid-1980s to date, Buddhism has expanded through media and education. There are two major Buddhist media networks in South Korea, the Buddhist Broadcasting System (BBS), founded in 1990 and the Buddhist Cable TV Network, founded in 1995.

Lotus Lantern Festival

During the 1990s, conflicts between the South Korean government and Buddhist leaders, as well as with fundamentalist Protestant denominations continued. The government accused Buddhism of immorality and many Protestants used this to forward their missionary work. Some religious gatherings even turned violent, vandalizing statues of Buddha and Dangun, the mythical founder of Korea. There was also a rash of temple burnings in the 1980s and 1990s, and attacks on Buddhist artwork continued. In one instance, a Protestant minister used a microphone on a cord as a bolo weapon and smashed temple paintings and a statue. In other instances, red crosses were painted on temple walls, murals, and statues. Buddha statues have also been decapitated. Furthermore, students at Buddhist universities report aggressive attempts to convert them on campus, especially near campus temples.

   On and off, sectarian tensions between fundamentalist Protestants and Buddhists occasionally rise due to what has been seen as a tendency of government officials – many of whom are Christians, especially of Protestant denominations – to tilt the political balance in favor of Christians over Buddhists, which led to discontent within the Buddhist community. Of particular note was after Lee Myung-bak’s ascendance to the Presidency, when the high proportion of Christians in relation to Buddhists in the public sector became known, particularly the president’s cabinet, where there were 12 Christians to only one Buddhist.

   Recently, the South Korean public has become increasingly critical of Protestant churches and leaders attacking Buddhist institutions and carrying out aggressive missionary tactics, with many Protestants leaving their churches and converting to Buddhism. The growing discontent with Protestant Christianity in South Korea has contributed to a spiritual and cultural revival of Buddhism, with the number of followers increasing in recent years. The presidency of Park Geun-hye aimed to help contribute to the suppression of Protestant attacks against Buddhists and Catholics in South Korea, with increasing calls for religious cooperation in the country under the administration. During the first year of the Park administration, a national message was delivered for the celebration of Buddha’s Birthday, a contrast from the former Lee Myung-bak presidency, which tried to suppress Buddhist influence in South Korea.

   South Korea’s contemporary culture has been shaped by the passionate pursuit of modernization. Since the end of the Korean War, South Korea has sought to improve its economy, shrugging off the effects of Japanese colonial rule and the devastation of the Korean War. The 1988 Olympics in South Korea marked a phenomenal upsurge in economic and technological development. That, in turn, led to an assault upon Korea’s traditional regard for the extended family and the values of filial piety. Today, South Korea is struggling to keep its traditional values in the face of a rapid growth in national prosperity and standard of living.

   The contemporary culture of South Korea derives from the traditional culture of Korea, but since the 1948 division of Korea, it developed separately from North Korea’s culture. The industrialization and urbanization of South Korea have brought many changes to Korean’s lives. In the past, most people lived in small rural areas. Changes in lifestyles have led many young people to leave the rural farming areas to find new opportunities in the cities (particularly Seoul). In the past, several generations would commonly live under one roof; today South Koreans have moved towards living in nuclear family.

1. Taego Order and Its Religious Legacy

   Before 1945 the majority of Korean Buddhist monastics were descended from Taego Bou, especially within the Jogye Order, which was founded at the end of Goryeo. This unified order continued until 1954, when Syngman Rhee and a number of monks ordered a separation of the order into two, one composed of 300 celibate monks and the other a combination of celibate monks and priests, the latter of which would become the Taego Order.

   The group of 300 celibate monks retained the name “Jogye Order” but changed the color of the kasa, the outer monastic robe worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm, to brown despite the fact that the traditional color of a Korean kasa was red. This was done to create a visual distinction between the orders. North Korean Buddhist clergy most often use the most traditional robes – a red kasa and a dark-blue or nearly black ceremonial robe.

   After the separation of the orders, the monastics in the Jogye Order as well as the government suppressed the group that became the Taego Order, in part by forcing married clergy out of the temples so these disestablished priests had to establish a new order that would carry the characteristics of the original Jogye Order, including the use of the original red kasa, though allowing for marriage. In 1970 a new order was officially founded that was named for Taego Bou.

   Of particular note in the Taego ritual tradition is the Yeongsanjae ritual. This is a reenactment of Shakyamuni Buddha’s teaching of the Lotus Sutra on Vulture Peak. It involves a great deal of chanting and dancing. The full ritual is quite long, but is sometimes performed in an abbreviated fashion lasting just a few hours. This ritual is only preserved in the Taego Order and has been recognized as an intangible cultural asset by UNESCO.

   Religion in Korea refers the various religious traditions practiced on the Korean Peninsula. The oldest indigenous religion of Korea is Korean shamanism, which has been passed down from prehistory to the present. Buddhism was introduced to Korea from China during the Three Kingdoms era in the 4^th century, and the religion flourished until the Joseon Dynasty, when Korean Confucianism became the state religion. During the Late Joseon Dynasty, in the 19^th century, Christianity began to gain foothold in Korea. While both Christianity and Buddhism would play important roles in the resistance to the Japanese occupation of Korea in the first half of the 20^th century, only about 4 per cent of Koreans were members of a religious organization in 1940.

   Since the division of Korea into two sovereign states in 1945 – North Korea and South Korea – religious life in the two countries has diverged, shaped by different political structures. Religion in South Korea has been characterized by a rise of Christianity and a revival of Buddhism, though the majority of South Koreans have no religious affiliation. Religion in North Korea is characterized by state atheism in which freedom of religion is nonexistent.

   Prior to the 20th century, Korean literature was influenced by Classical Chinese literature. Chinese calligraphy was also extensively used by Koreans for over one thousand years in Korean literature. Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul, which helped spread literacy from the dominant classes to the common people, including women. Hangul, however, only reached a dominant position in Korean literature in the second half of the 19^th century, resulting in a major growth in Korean literature. Sinsoseol, for instance, are novels written in hangul.

  In modern poetry, there were attempts at introducing imagist and modern poetry methods particularly in translations of early American moderns such as Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot in the early 20^th century. In the early Republic period, patriotic works were very successful. Lyric poetry dominated from the 1970s onwards. Poetry is quite popular in contemporary South Korea, both in terms of number of works published and lay writing.