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• 24/09/2025• Articles

Spread of Buddhism Among the Mongols

Historical books and materials on Mongolian Buddhism were used in the research such as Khor Choinjung (Tib. hor gyi chos ’byung) or Хөх нуурын домог by Сүмбэ хамба Ишбалжир, Цэмбэл гүүш’s Их монгол орноо дээдийн ном ямар мэт гарсан ёсны номлол ялгуусны шашин их эрдэнийг гийгүүлэгч зул, Зава лам Лувсандамдин’s Алтан дэвтэр, Дармадалай’s Их монголын оронд дээдийн ном ямар мэт дэлгэрсэн ёсыг тодорхой өгүүлэгч цагаан линхуян эрхис оршивой, Дармаабадра’s Алтан эрих хэмээх оршив, Раднабадраа’s Равжамба зая бандидын тууж Сарны гэрэл хэмээх энэ мэт болой, Галдан’s Эрдэний эрх хэмээх түүх болой, Лонжид.З., Батсайхан.О., (эрхэлсэн) Монголын товч түүх, Монгол улсын түүх тэргүүн боть, Өлзийбаяр.С., Энхбат.А., Жужан, Mонголын эртний түүх, Дэлгэржаргал. П., Сяньби, Монголын эртний түүх Дэлгэржаргал. П., Батсүрэн. Б., (эрхэлсэн) Төв азийн нүүдэлчдийн төр улсууд (VI−XII зуун), Сүхбаатар. Г., Монгол Нирун улс (330-555), Бира.Ш., Монголын түүх, соёл, түүх соёлын бичлэгийн судалгаа among the contemporary Mongolian historical books and materials. Many books of western scholars were drawn upon concerning the history of the spread of Buddhism in Xiongnu, Xianbei, Juan-juan, Khitan, Turkik, and Uighur people built their empires in the land of the Mongols such as Thomas J. Bartfield’s The Hsiung-nu Imperial Confederacy: Organisation and Foreign Policy, Sagaster. Klaus’s The History of Buddhism among the Mongols, Solonin. K.J., Buddhist connections between the Liao and Xixia, Sinor, Denis’s The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Ware. James R.’s Wei Shou on Buddhism, Amy McNair’s Patronage of Buddhist Buildings and Sovereignty in Medieval China: Four Cases from the Northern Wei Dynasty, Charleux. Isabelle’s Buddhist Monasteries in Southern Mongolia were drawn upon in the study.

Buddhism originated in India 2,500 years ago. It spread to ancient Mongolia around two thousand years ago and it evolved deeply into our culture and inherently became the link to traditional politics and religion. The history of Mongolian Buddhism is divided into three periods: ancient, middle and modern. We can say that the first introduction of Buddhism was spread among many ancient tribes living in the Mongolian lands where they established their empires. This period continued until the 10th century. A special characteristic of spread during this period is that it did not come through China or Tibet but it arrived from the Middle East Asian people nations such as the Parfy, Samarkhand, Tokhar, Kuchi, and Turkestan along the Silk Road and was introduced to Central Asia directly from India. Famous Mongolian Buddhist scholar Зава Дамдин mentioned in his Алтан дэвтэр that great paṇditas in Sogd and Uighur translated Mahāyāna sūtra.

At that time, the Sogdian people of Sogd, which was an ancient Iranian civilization in Asia that existed from the 6th century BC to the 11th century AD, came from Li land to the place of the Uighurs, and became instructors for the Uighurs and the Mongols and was taught the Dharma derived from ancient India. This is a story of how the holy Dharma was introduced there. The people not only believed in the Dharma but they were reciting Taking Refuge verses in Ancient Indian language using Hindi, Sogdian, and Uighur languages in teaching and learning. They had a tradition of using Sogdian script for wrote oral traditions. There are many such examples of Buddhism’s spread before Činggis Khan’s Great Empire. Buddhism was formed its own unique characteristics when it penetrated into the lifestyle, and spiritual faith among nomadic empires, especially for the Mongol and Turkic Empires. Therefore, we can refer to Mongolian Buddhism because it was performing a special role in the life of the people living in the ‘Northern Land’ or the Mongolian steppe.

Considering the Xiongnu Empire (3th century BC to 1st century CE), stretched to the west to Khotan in East Turkmenistan. This was out of the boundaries of the spreading Buddhism in the steppe which was the main symbol of civilisation and religion at the time. This though is uncertain.

After the fall of the Xiongnu Empire, the Xianbeis (147-234) built their empire and moved (apparently from the east) into the region vacated by the Xiongnu. Although there is some evidence that their political policy was based on Buddhist myths or tales, Buddhism was not their main religion, but Shamanism.

The current tradition of Mahāyāna Buddhism found its form around the time of the empire of the Northern Wei (386-534). After the Xiongnu Empire, Buddhism prevailed in the Toba people in the nomadic tribes and at the base was a combination of religion and authority system set its first form in the Northern Wei Empire of Toba people.

Aristocrats in the Toba Wei Empire also known as Northern Wei, built historical Buddhist construction as a symbol of the success of their empire and state. The influence of monarchs of Toba Wei performed a significant impression on the aristocrats of the Juan-juan Empire in the land of the Mongols and it did notably affect to spread Buddhism there.

The Juan–juan Khaganate among the ancient nomadic empires glorified Buddhism at national level. They had direct contact with India and actualised Indian Buddhist culture in the land of the Mongols. Shamanism was their main religion at first but they were converted into Buddhism eventually and it became the state religion. The monarchs of the Juan-juan khaganate issued orders to create Buddhist thangkas and statues by gold and other precious gems. Around 438−489, they invited Paṇḍita Darmapariya, who understood the meaning of many sutras, such as the Abhidharma sūtra, Saṅgha sūtra, and gained the special power of mantra. They enthroned him as the guru of the nation and they gave him 3000 households as his servicemen. It is becoming clear in historical materials that Buddhism in Central Asia was introduced from the period of the Turkic Empire (555-745), and the Toba emperor (573-581) issued an order to build Buddhist temples and stūpas (Mo. suburγan). Afterwards, Buddhism spread during the period of Ishpara emperor (581-587) and Bilge emperor (710-730) in the central part of Mongolia.

After the Turkic era, Buddhism continued its development in the period of the Uighur Empire. Many activities were completed such as building temples and stūpas in Khar Balgas (Mo. qar-a balγasun, Khal. xar balgas), Baibalyk city and translating many Buddhist sūtras for the further development of Buddhism. Even though this growth reached its top level from 744-840, after the tantric tradition for the national religion, Buddhism started to weaken. They used Sogdian script at the beginning. It is known nowadays as Uighur script. Some words such as nirwaan (Khal. gaslangaas nöxcsön, Skr. nirvāṇa, Tib. mya ngan las ’das pa), shashin (Skr. šаšana, Mo. šasin), sansar (Skr. šansāra, Mo. sansar), sudar (Skr. sūtra, Mo. sudur), shastir (Skr. šāstara, Mo. šastar), adis (Skr. adhishthāna, Mo. adis), we still use today derived from Uighur which they used at that time before the first wave of Buddhism came from Tibet. Therefore, contributions of the Uighurs in religion and culture of Mongolia are immeasurable.

The Khitan people of the Great Liao dynasty (907-1125) who spoke a Mongolian language supported Buddhism when their empire was strong and powerful. They were announced Buddhism for their national religion and tried to use their political power. At the beginning of the 10th century, Buddhism became the main religion for people. Not only Buddhist ideology was important for them but also the philosophy of Confucius, Taoist philosophy, and shamanism existed harmoniously. Even though the saṅgha of the Khitans mostly received their Buddhist culture from the Tang dynasty, they did not keep many new achievements from the Song dynasty.

The trails that show Buddhism gained at a high level during the Khitan Empire are the construction of Buddhist temples and stūpas. Many Khitan temples and stūpas from the Steppe of Eastern Mongolia through the land of Manchuria, Inner Mongolia to Shanxi currently (Shanxi Province in China), and Beijing are the evidence to show they were highly skilled builders. These constructions were mostly Chinese style. Two of the biggest examples of it are the stūpa of Kherlen Bars city near the Kherlen River in Tsagaan Ovoo district in Dornod Province in Eastern Mongolia and Jinchin White stūpa in Western Baarin Province in Inner Mongolia.

Buddhism gained its success many times in ancient nations which rose and fell in the land of the Mongols. They were receiving the religious culture of ancient India through the Middle East and enriched it with their nomadic culture. This was the beginning of Buddhism thriving in the land of Mongolia.

The 13th century is a special period that saw a major revolution for national consciousness, social ethics, mind, ideology for the Mongols. Although the nomadic clans had continuous war with one another, eventually they built the greatest empire of all time which conquered almost half of the world. After the Mongol Empire was established in 1206, they had active political, economic, and cultural relations with their neighborhood and other nations of the world. It became the prosperity of spreading Buddhism which already had a great religious tradition in nomadic people and other religions.

Even though Činggis Khan (1162-1227) and his successors respected all the religions, eventually Buddhism had stronger influence than others. The Khans of the empires had a special tie with Tibetan high-ranking monks and they had the policy to support Buddhism. Thinking that Buddhism came to Mongolia only from Tibet is incorrect. While there is the form of Tibetan Buddhism, there were other forms of Buddhism such as from the Uighurs, Tanguds (Mo. qašin irgen, Tib. mi nyag), and Chinese. It is obvious that the spreading Buddhism from Uighur was Tata tonga (Mo. tatatungγa), the keeper of the seal of the Naiman Tayan Khan, who fell into the hands of the Mongols, and had strong influence to Činggis Khan. Tatatonga was not Naiman, but an Uighur and eventually he became an advisor to Činggis Khan. The Uighurs used primarily a script that had been derived from the Sogdian script and which is referred to as Uighur script. The Uighur Tatatonga assumed office with Činggis Khan and apparently taught the Uighur script to the Mongols. This script began to be used also for representing the Mongolian language. To the present day, the Uighur script is widely used by the Mongols.

After conquering against the Xixia Empire, the Empire of the Tanguds. Činggis Khan had an opportunity to make contact directly with Tibet in 1227, and he was received a lot of information from Tibetan ranking high monks. At that time, 7 monks came from Tibet to teach but they returned not long after because of the oppositions from shamans. Mentioned by name are Tsalwadungarba, a disciple of Zhang tshal pa brTson ‘grus grags pa (1123-1193), the founder of the Tsalwagarjudba (Tib. tshal pa bka’ brgyud pa), and Zina Geshe (Tib. dge bshes), a learned Sakya monk. Činggis Khan is reported to have been so favorably struck by Tsanwadungarba that he granted the Buddhists exemption from taxes. Also, he was giving an order to reconstruct monasteries in the Tangud area.

In historical material, “When Činggis Khan went to Tibet he was 45 years old, in the year of the Fire Rabbit of the 14th sexagenary cycle (1206), Desrid Togma and Tsalba Gungaadorj sent their 300 people to greet him and organised a special ceremony. This messenger brought a message about their surrender and offering of three provinces of Ngari (Tib. mnga’ ris skor gsum), four provinces in Ü-tsang (Tib. dbus gtsang) and three places in Southern Kham (Tib. khams) under his rule as the present of capitulating. This area of Tibet became under his control. According to another source, he sent his letter and presents to Gungaanyambo (Tib. kun dga’ snying po), high ranking monk of the Sakya stream of Tibetan Buddhism out of his respect to the monk. He said “I have a special reason to invite your holiness. However, it is not the right time now because of political reasons but I have an admiration for you. Therefore, could you include me in your prayers? Someday, when I finish the matters, you should come to visit here with your disciples to spread Buddhism in the Mongol lands.” Even though he never met the monk in face to face, because he had faith in the monk from a distance and sent his presents to monastics and the Ü-tsang precious three deities, he is a King of Dharma.” Additionally, Činggis Khan had contact with Chinese Buddhist monks.

During the campaign against the Jin Dynasty (Mo. altan ulus) that lasted from 1211 to 1216, Činggis Khan encountered representatives of Chinese Buddhism. In 1214, the thirteen-year-old monk Haiyun (1202-1257) paid his respects to him. Haiyun belonged to the Chan or meditation school (Chin. chanzong) that had a big influence in Northern China at the beginning of the 13th century. It is obvious that the Great Khan asked many things about Buddhism and had the answers from the monk. Činggis Khan issued an order to exempt Chinese Buddhist monks from tax. His successors followed this order. The Chan master (Chin. chanshi) Haiyun also enjoyed the highest esteem from Činggis Khan’s successors Ögödei (r. 1229-1241), Güyüg (r. 1242-1246), and Möngke (r. 1251-1259).

Based on the facts mentioned above, Činggis Khan was a ruler who helped Buddhist Dharma and who used the dual system, the combination of religion and political system. We can say that he gave this tradition to the next generations.

Ögödei Khan (1186-1241) invited the high-ranking monk of Taglunba monastery (Tib. stag lung pa) in Tibet to the Mongol lands and appointed him as guru of Sorkhagtani, queen of Tului (?-1252) and his son in Karakorum, capital of the Mongol Empire. As mentioned in some books of the Great Yuan Dynasty, the period of Ögödei Khan, Namu, Otochi monks from Kashmiri or Kachi of Northern monks came to the Khan’s palace. Güyüg Khan (?-1248), the third khan of the Great Mongol Empire, declared Namu as his dharma teacher. Also, Möngke Khan (1208-1259) proclaimed him as a national religious leader and issued him a special seal. Namu played an important role together with Phagpa Drogön Chogyal (Tib.’phags pa ʼgro mgon chos rgyal, 1235-1280) making Tibetan Buddhism to become the dominant religion of the Yuan dynasty during the period on Qubilai Khan (1215-1295). One evidence of Buddhism that was important at the beginning of the Great Mongol Empire is the inscription on a stone monument found near the base of Erdene Zuu monastery. The meaning of the script was about Ögödei Khan who ordered to build a large temple in 1246 and Möngke Khan completed the construction in 1256. Other Khans were also paying attention to the temple and they spent some wealth for reconstruction in 1311, 1342-1346, thus it became more elegant. There were five stores and 90 meters tall tower (ger) on the top of the temple, 7 jan (Mo. ǰang) size, every room at four sides, shrines with many sūtras and statues, a gold-covered stūpa, solid castle around the temple and three 3 double-door entrances.

B. Rubruck mentioned 12 Buddhist temples in Karakorum. They were decorated beautifully around the temple entrances and had resting or sitting places near the biggest entrance. There were very tall trees, taller than anything in the city, near the big entrance. This tree was the kind of direction point to the Buddhist temple. When I entered the temple, I saw many monks sitting outside, near the entrance. As it was mentioned in Rubruck’s book, there were 12 temples for different nations. In 1227, after Činggis Khan passed away, the relationship between the Great Mongol Empire and Tibet was not good for a while. The Mongols’ first intention was not to conquer Tibet but they were controlling them through supporting their high-ranking monks and the strongest tradition of Tibetan Buddhism at that time. This policy continued throughout history.

In 1240, Göden, son of Ögödei Khan, was ruling the area around Kukunor (Mo. köke naγur, Khal. xöx nuur). In 1240 he sent an army to Central Tibet. This brought the whole territory from Kong-po in the southeast of Tibet to the border with Nepal under Mongolian rule. The Mongolian troops were under the supreme command of general Doorda (Tib. dor ta/rdo rta).

Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyeltsen (Tib.sa skya pandi ta kun dga’ rgyal mtshan,1182-1251), was a high-ranking monk of the Sakya stream of Tibetan Buddhism. His two nephews, Phagpa Drogön Chogyal was ten years old at that time, and his brother was only six years old when left their palace in 1247 for the invitation of Göden. After a long trip, they finally reached the palace of Göden in Lanzhou in the 8th month of the year of the Fire Horse (1246). They reached Göden’s encampment in Sira Tala the “Yellow Plain”, in the neighborhood of Lanzhou, in the central part of present-day Gansu Province. He was 65 years old at that time. Göden was in Mongolia but he came back to his palace and greeted them with great respect on the first day of the Sheep month. Göden was suffering from leprosy at that time and Sakya Paṇḍita Kunga Gyeltsen cured his pain with special rituals and herbs. Therefore, the noyon had a deep faith in the monk and he became a benefactor of Buddhism. He received many important teachings including initiation of Hevajra (Tib. kye’i rdo rje) for accumulating merits. This meeting was important to Tibetans and they stayed peaceful under his protection. On the contrary, it was important to spread Buddhism amongst the Mongolian people.

This was the event that Göden had a dharma connection with Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyeltsen as “object of offering (=Lama) and almsgiver, religious guide and worldly patron” (Mo. takil-un oron, öglige-yin eǰen, Тib. mchod gnas, yon bdag). Göden enthroned this high-ranking monk of the Sakya stream to be the head of Tibetan Buddhism and became the benefactor of Buddhism. Qubilai Khan invited Phagpa to Shangdu (Mo. šangdu, Khal. šandu), which was the capital of the Yuan Empire (1259-1378) to appoint him as monk in 1253. He gave a honorary title “Guru of the Empire” (Chin. guo shi) to the high-ranking monk of Tibetan Buddhism and enthroned him to be the head of Buddhism of the entire empire. Moreover, Buddhism was announced as the main religion and Buddhist monks, who kept their vows purely, were exempted from any kinds of tax. Also, they prohibited their messengers staying overnight in temples, using their land, water, and properties which belong to a temple. In other words, this was a kind of protection of Buddhism from dissolving into many religions especially the Chinese culture. The dual system, initiated by Phagpa and implemented by Qubilai Khan, was improved more by the next successors. Qubilai Khan’s policy, which was the combination of the worldly policy and the teaching of the Buddha, had been preserved until the beginning of the last century.

The next Khans of the Great Yuan Empire such as Ölziit Khan (1265-1307), Khaisankhüleg Khan (1281-1311), Buyant Khan (1285-1320), Yesöntömör Khan (1276-1328), Zayat Khan (1304-1322), Rinchenbal Khan (1326-1332), and Togoontömör Khan (1320-1370) had their own chosen guru and they were controlled the empire with the dual system. Even though the Nyingma (Tib. rnying ma) stream and the Sakya stream of Tibetan Buddhism were introduced during the period of the Yuan Empire, it just gained its success among the royals of the Empire but did not expand its popularity among the ordinary people.

After the fall of the Yuan Empire, Buddhism temporarily lost its popularity and shamanism found its success more than ever in the Mongol land. Many historians consider that as the “Dark Period”. It seems that many people were preferring shamanism over Buddhism and they were doing many wrongdoings. Nevertheless, the influence of Buddhism was still strong in the area of Western Mongolia and the Southern area which had boundaries with the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Togoon and Esen Khan of Oirat gave an honorary title “Guru of the State” to high-ranking monks of Tibet and they were trying acceptance by Ming dynasty. When the Oirats tried to establish a relationship with the Ming Dynasty, they sent messengers to high-ranking monk from Oirat and Tibet and demanding them to give honorary titles and the charity of Buddhist statues and thangkas.

The third wave of Buddhism with many failures and success came to the present from the beginning of 16th century and it still continues into the 21st century. Even though the third wave of Buddhism is generally the same as the previous, its nature differs in some ways. We could say that this wave was used in a more political purpose.

After the fall of the Yuan Empire of the Mongols, they lost their policy of being unified, and aristocrats were tried to be independent everywhere. Having contact with the high-ranking monks of a tradition in Tibetan Buddhism was a way of showing power. Mongols wanted their power and unity back in their politics throughout a century. This method started from Qubilai Khan as a guru-benefactor relationship gave mutual benefit in both politics and religion. Therefore, the competition of making contacts to high-ranking monks of Tibetan Buddhism was the main characteristics of the aristocrats to the middle of the 16th to 17th centuries. Gradually, Buddhism was spreading in all parts of Mongolia including Tümed, the main ethnic group of Inner Mongolia, Khalkha, subdivided into four provinces or Aimag, Oirat, and Inner Mongolia. According to Johan Elverskog “Tibetan Buddhism and 263 monasteries of its derived version of Buddhism in a Mongolia was giving an opportunity to many groups of Mongols to keep their separation….. Aristocrats of many small groups or provinces were understanding that it is impossible to keep their independence based on Dayan Khan’s policy of the nation. In other words, they were trying to unite their nation under the influence of one religion and culture. From the middle of the 16th-17th century, Red and Yellow Stream of Tibetan Buddhism spread in the Mongol lands. Society was disappointed because of meaningless competition among the aristocrats of that time and they thought the unity under one religion and one policy as the only solution to overcome these issues. It was clear that they saw Buddhism meeting these requirements when they choose this religion because of the demands of that time.

It was a political necessity at that time but it was not pressured by someone. Most of the influential royal people of the Mongols contacted high ranking monks of the Gelugpa stream (Tib. dge lugs pa) of Tibetan Buddhism, also known as Yellow hat stream. It was the newest and the most powerful stream at that time. Instead of shamanism which was not enough to the political demands, they were welcomed this tradition because it was enriched by the dual system and they tried to modify it according to the culture of the Mongols. These are the reasons of why this religion spread in the land of the Mongols and one of the special features of Buddhism in the middle of 16th and early 17th centuries.

In the middle of the 16th century, Altan Khan (1502-1582) of the Tümed Mongols lived in the rich plain situated in the northeast corner of the loop of the Yellow River. He had a significant role in spreading Tibetan Buddhism, especially the Gelugpa stream in the Mongol lands from the royals of the Mongols. Altan Khan and Khutugtai Tsetsen (Mo. čečen, Khal. cecen) of Ordos (Mo. ordus) invited more than 20 monks from Tibet and some of them travelled through the land of the Ming dynasty. They taught the Buddhist doctrine and tried to educate and enlighten people with the Buddhist teachings.

Altan Khan had a very active policy of spreading Buddhism such as inviting Sönam Gyatso (Тib. bsod nams rgya mtsho, 1543-1588), high ranking monk of the Gelugpa stream of Tibetan Buddhism, in Tsawchaal Temple, having a personal meeting with the monk, having faith in the Gelugpa stream with his followers. He started spreading Buddhism among the ordinary people in his area. In the meeting, he created a rule of the approval of Buddhism in the Mongol lands which corresponds to Арван буянт номын цагаан түүх [White History of the Dharma with Ten Virtues], a rule of Qubilai Khan to combine the policy of politics and religion. This legislation was the first law officially approving and supporting the spread of Buddhism.

This law prohibited the old traditions in shamanic rituals such as killing animals to sacrifice to the spirit of the shaman, burying people and animals with their deceased ones. Instead, it allowed people to make offerings such as milk and butter for such deities as Mahākāla (Tib. nag po chen po). This law harshly punished Shamanism and supported widely the Gelugpa stream of Tibetan Buddhism. Altan Khan gave the honorary title of Dalai Lama for the first time to Sönam Gyatso in a meeting, and permitted him to be such as Phagpa, the guru of Qubilai Khan. Also, Sönam Gyatso, and Maitreya khutugtu gave an honorary title “Dharma Čakravartin king, The Powerful One” and a silver stamp to Altan Khan and gave an honorary title “Ārya Tārā”, an emanation of Tārā, to the queen of Altan Khan. This Dalai Lama title became official and later, this title was given to the Gedun Drub (Tib. dge ‘dun grub pa, 1391-1474), a disciple of Tsongkhapa (Tib. tsong kha pa, 1357-1419), as the First Dalai Lama and his emanation Gedun Gyatso (Tib. dge ‘dun rgya mtsho, 1475-1542) as the Second Dalai Lama. Altan Khan hoped to unify again the Mongolian polities in a confederation based on this universal and organised religion, which had attracted the settled Tümed nobility by its sophisticated rituals, doctrine, and literature. For his part, the Dalai Lama hoped to find in these new allies’ strong military support that could allow the Gelukpa stream to consolidate their influence and to conquer whole Tibet.

By building a good relationship with the Third Dalai Lama Sönam Gyatso, Altan Khan, one of the most influential royals of the Mongols, became the most influential person spreading Buddhism in the Mongol lands, specially the Gelugpa stream. Next, Tümen Zasagt Khan (1539-1592), Abtai Sain Khan (1554-1588), Altan Khan Sholoi (1567-1627) and Oirat Baibagas had strong faith in Buddhism and they started to spread Buddhism in their areas. For instance, Tümen Zasagt Khan (1558-1593) tried to create a political and religious union with Tibet to restore their nation’s unity and improve the power of the nation.

In order to support the expansion of Buddhism, he passed “Great Tsaaz” (Mo. čaγaja, Khal. caaj) or “Prohibition Law” in 1576, and invited Wangchuk Dorje (Tib. dbang phyug rdo rje, 1556-1603), the abbot of the Nyingma stream, well known as sword knitter (Mo. ildün janggiduγči) of the Nyingma stream of Tibetan Buddhism, became his disciple, and actively worked on spreading this stream among the Tsakhar (Mo. čaqar, Khal. caxar), a Mongol ethnic group. Also, Tümen Zasagt Khan invited the Third Dalai Lama Sönam Gyatso (1543-1588) from Kökeqota to Tsakhar and tried to support the Gelukpa stream. This was their policy to get support of the Red and Yellow Streams. The third Dalai Lama, Sönam Gyatso passed away on the area of the Khorchin (Mo. qorčin, Khal. xorčin) Mongols in the southern area of the Mongols in 1588 while he was making efforts for spreading Buddhism.

A boy was born in the family of Sumberu Daichin, the oldest son of Senge Düüren, son of Altan Khan, and his wife Dare, also known Baakhanzul in the year of Ox of the 10th sexagenary cycle (1589) and he was enthroned as the reincarnation of the Third Dalai Lama Sönam Gyatso. This was an unusual event in the history of the Mongols in the 16th century.

Enthroning the Fourth Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso (Tib.yon tan rgya mtsho, 1589-1616) from the area of the Mongols was important in the relationship of Tibet and the Mongol lands to accelerate the advancement of Buddhism in the area of the Mongols.

Ligden khutugtu (1598-1634) descendant of the elder son of Činggis Khan, hence the legitimate emperor of all Mongols, built a centre for Buddhism in Awga Khar Mountain by building Tsagaan Balgas (White City) and Tsagaan Stūpa (Mo. čaγan suburγan, Khal. čagaan suwarga) and invited Maitreya khutugtu Donkhor Yonten Gyatso (Tib. stong ’khor yon tan rgya mtsho, 1557-1587) and Sharawdanzan khutugtu, who both were representatives of the Fourth Dalai Lama, to the center. He became a disciple to them and received many empowerments. He ordered the translation of the Kanjur, total of 108 volumes, from Tibetan to the Mongolian Language to high-ranking monk Paṇḍita Gungaa-Odser (Tib. kun dga’’od zer) and his 33 translators even though this work was started in the period of Altan Khan and printed the collection using gold. Ligden Khan strictly following the policy for religion in the Yuan Empire of Qubilai Khan invited many eminent monks from the Nyingma and Sakya streams supporting mostly by the tantric stream of Tibetan Buddhism.

Abtai sain Khan of the Khalkha (1554-1588) sent his messengers with their leader Alag Darkhan of Khernuud tribe to Tümed to invite monk Gümen Nanso in 1581 and monk Samla Nanso in 1583. He received Dharma teachings and initiated vows. He became as an example of how a good disciple should be and it was the start of spreading Buddhism in Khalkha.

Abtai Khan had contacts with high-ranking monks of Tibet who were residing in Inner Mongolia at the time. By the help of Altan Khan and Sengedüüren Khan (1538-1585), he met the Third Dalai Lama Sönam Gyatso in 1585 on the 15th day or full moon day of the last month of summer, and gave him precious gifts such as sable fur, glittering tent, silver and livestock. In return, Sönam Gyatso gave him a non-combustible thangka of Pagmadupe Vajra King, this time to him an honorary title “Vajra King”, a stamp with yellow letters and he gave title because of many Khans were supporters of the Vajra tradition.

Abtai Sain Khan chose an old Vajrapāṇi statue from the many Buddhist statues. He selected it intentionally because he might have thought about Činggis Khan when he made his decision. There is evidence that the red hat stream was strong at the beginning in Khalkha. After his return to his land, Abtai Sain Khan started to build the Zuu temple, a Zuu or Śākyamuni Buddha thangka in enormous size and the translation of sūtras as a symbol of the Triple Gem. Erdene Zuu Khiid monastery was built from 1585-1587 and he enthroned Lodoinyanbo sent from Tibet to the monastery. This monk officially opened the monastery with special Buddhist rituals and gave its name “Bat Erdene Zuu”. From this moment, Erdene Zuu monastery became a center of politics, religion, culture and economy and it was thought of as the sacred land for many devotees of the Mongol lands. Buddhism spread at a fast phase until the beginning of the 17th century. Buddhism reached its highest peak of the extent and its teachings: rituals and organizations were well organised and penetrated deep into people’s mind. For example, many monks and khutugtus such as Zaya

Paṇḍida Namkhaijamts (Tib. nam mkha’i rgya mtsho,1599-1662) in Oirat, Jidshod khutugtu Agwaandanzanperenlei (1627-1672) in Oirat, the great translator Agwaan-Looroi, Luwsanpuntsag (Tib. blo bzang phun tshogs), abbot of Gomang Datsan (Tib. sgo mang grwa tshang) of Drepung Monastery (Tib. ‘bras spungs dgon pa) in Tibet, Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar (1635-1723), also known asJebtsundamba (Tib. rje btsun dam pa), Jalkhanz Khutugtu Lobsang Tenzin Gyaltsen, Lamiin Gegeen Lobsang Tenzin Gyaltsen (1639-1703), Zaya Paṇḍida Lobsang Trinley (1642-1715), Darba Paṇḍita Sonam Gyatso (1637-1702) had important roles in this development. In Inner Mongolian Torguud Neyiǰi toyin (1557-1788), Oirat Sumpa Khamba Ishbaljir (1704-1788), Buryat Damba Darjaa Zayayev (1711-1776) had great contributions too. Most of the high-ranking monks and khutugtus of the Mongol land were sent to Tibet, when they were young to study Buddhism under the guidance of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama. They resided in Lhasa, Ganden (Tib. dga’ ldan rnam par rgyal ba’i gling), Sera (Tib. se ra), Drepung, Tashilhunpo (Tib. bkra shis lhun po) monasteries and after they studied the biggest five doctrines of Buddhist philosophy, they returned to their homeland to contribute to spreading Buddhism, to build monastic schools, to teach the Dharma, and to translate and print sūtras.

Like many other oriental people, the Mongols entered deeply into the boundary of Buddhist religion and culture and Buddhism became the dominant religion. The number of highly educated monks increased and many khutugtus who were educated in Mongols and Tibet tirelessly performed their religious activities. Many royal people became benefactors, spent their prospeties on building temples, giving goods and livestock, finding pupils etc. Royals welcomed Buddhism and created the title of Dalai Lama. When they gave this title to Sönam Gyatso for the first time, he was the abbot or abbot of Drepung monastery in Tibet. The next Dalai Lama reincarnated and enthroned in the Mongol lands, and the relationship between the Mongols and Tibet reached a very high level. This was an important condition to spread Buddhism during the Ming Dynasty and Manchu Empire. The contribution of the Mongols to the development of Buddhism was immense.

After the Fourth Dalai Lama Yondonjamts (1589-1617) was enthroned from Mongol land, Zanabazar (1635-1723), a son of Tüsheet Khan Gombodorj (1594-1655), direct descendant of Činggis Khan, and Khandjamts the wife of Gombodorj and the daughter of Dörwöd Dalai, who was leader of the Dörwöd, was declared spiritual leader of the Mongols in the year of the blue, Wooden Pig year in the 11th sexagenary cycle (1635) and it was an important event in the life of khutugtu’s and high-ranking monks. This was an effort to have one spiritual leader and an attempt to soften the conflict between the Khalkhas and the Oirats on the other hand. Also, it was a great effort to unite the nation in spiritual and political ways. Red Hat Donkhor Khutugtu ordained a 5-year-old boy, son of Tüsheet Khan Gombodorj and grandson of Abtai Sain Khan of Khalkha, with rawjung (Tib. rab ‘byung) vow and gave him the ordained name “Zanabazar”.

A special palace was built at Shiree Tsagaan Nuur (Mo. siregetü čaγan naγur, Khal. šireet cagaan nuur) in the year of the yellow Rabbit in the 11th sexagenary cycle (1639), many people like khans, royals, monastics, and laymen gathered at the place from all around in Khalkha including the four Khalkha provinces, and they enthroned Zanabazar as a spiritual leader in the Northern Mongolian land and the protector of sentient beings. Khans, royals from 7 banners collected charity to found Ikh Shaw’ or treasure fund and gave him service people for his religious activities. This was the first establishment of Ikh Khüree (Mo. yeke küriy-e, Khal. ix xüree). Zanabazar established many monasteries and temples such as Baruun Khüree (Western buddhist complex) or Ribogejai Gandanshaddüwlin (Tib. ri bo dge rgyas dga’ ldan bshad sgrub gling) [Monastery with Full Beauty and Joy in Theory and Practice] monastery near Erdene Zuu monastery which was built by Abtai Sain Khan in Karakorum, where many Great Mongolian khans resided before, in 1654 and Sardagiin Khiid (Mo. šardag-un keyid, Khal. sardagiin xiid) in the south of Khan Khentii Mountain (Mo. qan kentei aγula, Khal. xan xentii uul) in 1688. After many times of movements, Ikh Khüree moved to near Bogd Khan Mountain (Mo. boγda qan aγula, Khal. bogd xan uul) on the bank of the Tuul River (Mo. tuul γool, Khal. tuul gol). This was the base of today’s Ulaanbaatar, the capital city of Mongolia. In Mongolian historyZanabazar established a brand-new religious and cultural school, founded monastic camps, monasteries and temples, and laid the basis of the intensive spreading of Buddhism throughout Mongolia. He did not aim at adopting and spreading Tibetan Buddhism in its original form, but made efforts to innovate it completing with nomadic lifestyle, nomadic culture and psychology. He used his own talents as well as the vocation of his disciples. As fruits and results, several highly educated monks worked on the spreading of Gelukpa teachings, founded various assemblies, temples and monasteries which fit to the nomadic, moving lifestyle, and also introduced monastic regulations, ceremonial rules, different rites and practices combining them with the traditional way of life and mind set of the Mongols.

Starting from Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar, ten incarnations of the Jebtsundamba Khutugtus have been recognised in Mongolia, who secured and spread Buddhism ever since.

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Lkhagvasuren Dorj (Ph.D.),

Gandan Tegchening Monaster – The Center of Mongolian Buddhists

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