During their rule over half the world, the Mongol khans displayed a high level of tolerance towards most of the religions. They even allowed conversions from Buddhism to Christianity and Islam.
Under the leadership of Great Chinggis Khan, an institution was established to ensure complete religious freedom, despite the fact that he himself was the TENGERIST. Throughout his reign, about half of the world religious leaders of all religions were exempted from taxation in the Mongol Empire, as documented by Weatherford (2004, page 69).
When Chinggis Khan’s his sons and grandsons assumed power over the Golden Horde, Chagatai Ulus, Il Khanid dynasty, and Yuan dynasty, they brought along Mongol Aimaks (such as the Barlas, Naiman, Jalair, Nukus, Arluad, Khongirade) and their belongings, including animal husbandry, ger (yurta) and other properties. This was done to establish Mongol communities in the countries where they ruled. Local taxes were used for their palace and building, bridges in own ruling countries.
The ruling elite court –khan, khatan and their relatives and also accompanied by Mongol Aimaks and serving military people were carried their own religion, nomadic way of life, military discipline, hunting system and nomadic food, culture, as well as other traditions.
Over the time, a new mixed culture and tradition, as well as art, architecture, astronomy, the introduction of paper money, monetary system emerged among the members of the Mongol Empire. This has given a new opportunity to bring people closer to understand each other and live friendly.
Additionally, the World postal system and “Gerege” (Paiza) were created by the Mongol Empires. They also established Mongolian peace, known as “Pax Mongolica”, and also introduced the Yasa, Chinggis khan’s Constitution which were spread and welcomed under in their ruled countries.
The Mongol khans also successfully implemented a firm and powerful security system to protect caravan traders on the Silk Road, the Tea Road and steppe Road for promotion trade relations between Asia and Europe.
These aforementioned facts were approved by remaining monuments, traveler’s accounts, manuscripts, and archaeological findings. For instance, there are notable places and cities are still exist or existed only in papers. These are: Chagatai darvaza (Tashkent), Chagatai district (Afghanistan), city Nukus, capital of Republic of Kalakalpakstan, Uzbekistan also Khongireid town , Naiman town (Uzbekistan), Jalair (Khojente, Tajikstan), Qarsh(Uzbekstan), Buyan Kuli Mausoleum ( Bukhar, Uzbekistan) Bulgar,Ukek (Tatarstan,Russia) and Almalik (Xianjing Uighar), Qonqor Olong (Iran).
Mongolian scholars have made efforts to compile and introduce the contributions of Great Chinggis Khan and his successors to the world. In this context Dr. O. Nyamdavaa compiled a list of 37 contributions of Great Chinggis Khan and his successors to the world. It is available in Mongolian, Russian, and English languages (Cultural heritage of Chagatai khan in the Central Asia, 2022, Ulaanbaatar).
Let us go the religion: Tenggerism and Shamanism. According to Dr.Sh Bira[1] and general Mongol feelings on Tengerism was elaborated on the basis of the worship of TENGGERI which is fundamental concept of Shamanism, the old folk religion of the Mongolian nomadic peoples. Tenggeri is something like God, representing alone the supreme masculine power in the universe, ruling all natural and social phenomena on earth. And in relation to Tenggeri, the Earth represents a subordinate feminine force. Hence, the expression;Etsege Tenggeri ( Father Tenggeri) and Ekhe Gazar ( Mother Earth).
Most contemporary foreign travelers observed that the Mongols “believed in one God –Tengeri who is considered to be the creator of all visible and invisible beings. And he is also considered to be the creator of happiness and sufferings in the orld”[2]. Tengerism developed several elementary concepts, such as those of the divine origin of khanship, the dualistic nature of the khan’s power, his charisma and other related points. While the theory of divine origin of khanship was well known among nomadic peoples, it was the Mongols who not only kept the oldest version without interruption but beyond of more advanced civilization[3].
Munkh khan said “ We –Mongols believe there is one God- Tenggeri, through whom we have life and through whom we die and towards whom we direct our hearts”[4]. From historical sources, it is clear that Chinggis khan firmly believed in shamanism and exploited, better than anyone else in his time, the Tenggeri worship of the Mongols in the interest of his political ambitious and great deeds. In this respect he could be considered to have been a real founder of Mongolian Tenggerism as the official political ideology of the Great Mongolian State.
In this connection, I quote Dr.Teresa Fitzherbert[5] “ … For Mongols , birds of prey represented the link with the all-powerfull sky god Tengri, and their ability to soar to the heavens they also represented the flight of the spirit at the moment of death. Power of flight attribute to the Mongol shaman was often signified by feathers attracted to their shoulders. Chinggis khan claimed descent from Tengri”.
Juwan quotes the Shaman , Teb-Tengri, as pronouncing that “God has spoken with me and has said:I have given all the face of earth to Temujin and his children and named him Chinggis khan…The Armenian monk –chronicler Grigor of Akanc ‘s records a tradition that the Chinggisid law code , the Yasa, was delivered by an eagle with power of speech and golden feathers…Budge notes that the Ilkhan Geikhatu (1291-1295) conferred a golden payza ( Gerege ) of sunqur ( gyrfacon) classon the Nestorian Patriarch Mar Yahbh, when he visited him at Magaha”. This may give additional explanation on Tengerism of Mongolian concept.
Khubilai khan knew well his own nomadic civilization, as well as all other civilization, including the Confucianism, Buddhism, Arab-Islamic and European –Christian civilization, and he did his best to exploit their achievements successfully and selectively in conformity with his on policy of Tenggerism
Khubilai Khan explained his religious policy to Marco Polo as follow;” There are four Gods that are worshipped by everybody. Jesus Christ of the Christians, Muhammed of the Iranians, Moses of the Jews, and Buddha Chandamani. As regards to myself, I respect all of those four religions, but whosoever is the greatest and most honest in heaven, I wish to have bless me[6].
Buddhism. According to Indian scholars, Buddhism spread in the Indo-Gangetic valley during the life time of Buddha. King Ashoka deputed a group monks to Gandhara to propagate the dharma.The first Missionary who brought Buddhism to Central Asia was Vairochana[7] who was Kashmiri Buddhist scholar, built the first monastery at Khotan[8].
Chronicles of Chinese pilgrims, Fa –Hien (5th century AD), Hiuen Tsiang (during 620-645 AD travelled to India) and I-tsing (spent 10 years in India, from 675- 685 AD) are most important sources. Both Hiuen-tsiang and I—tsing saw among the students at Nalanda, foreign scholars hailing from far off countries like Korea, Mongolia, Tokhara, China, Tibet. I-tsing counts 56 foreign scholars residing in Nalanda in his days[9]. It shows that Mongols studied in Nalanda University during 7 to 8 centuries. There is big remains of Buddhist monastery which is situated 20 km from Kashkar (See photo left).
In Karakorium, capital of Great Mongolian State, Ogedei (Өгөөдэй) khan built houses of worship for Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, and Taoist follower, along with palaces. The dominant religions of that time were Shamanism, Tengerism and Buddhism.There is remains of ancient Buddhist temple in Qashkar (20 km from Qashkar) in Xianjiang Uyghar, China showing spread of Buddhism through the Central Asia into Mongolia.Later on Buddhism flourished second time in Mongolia during the XVIth century. This time Yellow Sect of Tibetan Buddhism was introduced into Mongolia. Altan Khan of Tumet (Southern Mongolia) invited the spiritual leader of Tibet, Sodnamjamtso, in 1577 and adopted the Yellow Faith. At the Grand ceremony held in connection with the assumption of the new Faith. Altan Khan elevated Sodnamjamtso to be head of the entire Yellow Faith and bestowed on him the Title of Dalai Lama which is the Mongol word, in English is “OCEAN”[10].
Buddhism in Il khanid Dynasty.
The Iranian authority made a formal request to Munkh khan in Karakorium, capital of the Great Mongolian State, to destroy the disestablishing forces (Ismailis) in the Alamut castle, Alborz, Qarvin, presently it is Mazandarun province, Iran for establishing peaceful life (Pax Mongolica) for the local people as well as international trader. So considering their request Munkh khan sent his brother Hulegu to Alamut Castle to establish Pax- Mongolica, 1256. After fulfillment the request, Hulegu further moved to Baghdad.These countries were Islamic. In 1258, after Hulegu’s victory over Baghdad[11], Munkh khan has awarded Hulegu as “Il khan”. So Il khanid dynasty has appeared on world map.
So Buddhist “Il khanid dynasty”, as political and cultural phenomenon has suddenly became a visible on Eurasian world. There are several scholars who wrote on Il khanid Buddhism. These are Roxan Prazniak, Allsen Thomas, Reuven Amitai Pieiss, A.Pausani, Donald N.Weilber, Devin De Weese, David Jacoby, Tomoko Maskya, Samuel M.Crupper, ShielaS.Blair, Jonathan M.Bloom, Landa Komaroff, Paul D.Buell, Sh.Bira and Nicholas Roerich, Khazanov.B,Ya. Vladimirtsov.
A mapping of physical presence of Ilkhanid Buddhism reveals Buddhist communities as far west as Anatolia where they coexisted within Christian, Muslim communities. Within this era of Buddhist revival, the story of Ilkhanid Buddhism begins in East Turkestan and North China as prelude to its distinctive development in the social environment of 13th century Iran. Uighur families who practiced Buddhism were early supporters of the Chinggisid claims to world leadership and continued to serve as valued military and political advisors to the Khans throughout their rule within the Han Chinese domains, one eminent Buddhist monk, master Xingxiu- (Hsing hsiu, 1166-1246), responded to the political uncertainties of early Mongol rule by retiring to write.
For all schools of Buddhism, the sudden reality of Mongol dominance offered competitive opportunities. As waves of Tibetan, Kashmiri priests found audience with the khan at Karakorum, Chan Buddhist groups experienced a gradual eclipse of their authority. Court issued invitations to Dharmasvamin and other Tibetan monks familier with Nepalese Buddhist teachings popular in this period increased in frequency[12].
Hulegu’s contacts with Kashmiri Buddhist communities began early in his career and would continue to feed currents of Ilkhanid Buddhism. Kashmiri masters were well known for preserving a highly refined form of Buddhism that incorporated “both the speculative and logical tradition and practice of Tantra and ritual”. Buddhist communities historically sustained extensive fiscal and commercial networks, and there is no reason this pattern would not have continued into the Mongol era.
Iranian Buddhist temple construction: Khurgsan to Azerbaijan.
During Ilkhanate, Mongol rulers built a corridor of Buddhist temples between the Black sea and the area South of Caspean sea, along routes that linked Anatolia to the Indus river valley and Uygharstan. After the construction of Labnasagut, Hulegu sponsored a second Buddhist complex of comparable quality in Southern Azarbaijan at Khoi[13].
The Rasatkhanh Hill caves near Maragaha, west of Tabriz, were possibly another elobborate example of Buddhist cave structure, as were the varjuvi caves just 6 km to the south. There is need to make joint study of the two countries to explore it to the world.
Sultaniyya, founded by Arghun and completed by his son Oljaitu, had a castle built of cut-stone and known for its beauty. It is called locally Dash Kasan , built in 1290 with Dragon picture, carved on it[14]. There is second explanation that Dash Kasan was constructed by Oljaitu and his sister who used to go there and make daily pray as a Buddhist with her followers.
Arghun and other Ilkhans regularly used the site QONQOR OLONG, near Sultaniyya for religious ceremonies supervised by Kashmiri “bakhshi”, and there the archeological evidence is richer. According to some scholar, the area of Qonqor Olong used to be falcon hunting area and the Falcon is the State bird of Mongolia.
The village that sits on the plain of extensive palatial ruins is today named viyar, a possible cognate of Vihara, Sanskrit for Buddhist monastery.Rashid ad-Din indicates in one place that Argun-khan ‘built a temple [in Tebriz] and pictured his images on the walls[15].
The Uygur artisans were particularly respectable and influential as masters of miniature and architectural decoration. The Uygur artists Kutlug Buga, Altun Buga, Toktimur, Ayas and others took part in the formation of the Tebriz miniature school in the 13th-14th centuries. No doubt, Uyghur architects we do not know yet anything about played a leading part in the building of a number of constructions in the territory of Azerbaijan, such as Buddhist temples, kumirs[16], Mongolian obas[17] and others architectural forms characteristic of Central Asian architecture. According to Nizari, a 13th-century Iranian poet and traveler, 30 dragons were depicted on the Hulagu-khan castle on Shakhu-tell Island[18]. As images of a lion or dragon, symbolising power and protection, were widely used in the architectural decoration of buildings of Karakorum.
The Kashan tiles of Takht E Sulaiman are decorated with specially Buddhist motifs, such as an array of lotus flower designs. The complex built at Takht -E Sulaiman by Ilkhan Abaga (1265-1281) was summer palace of the Ilkhans with residence, a treasury, and halls for Emperial audiences. Because rulers held religious ceremonies at their seasonal location, Takht E Sulaiman would have had such buildings and they would have been Buddhist, in keeping with Abaga’Khan’s preferences, and possibly also Nestorian to accommodate his wife’s beliefs. A specific large four-columned structure at Takht E Sulaiman has been identified as a likely location of Buddhist temple.
Archeologists have also identified the remains of a Buddhist temples near Merv that incorporated local architectural features into a Buddhist design. It is also needed joint research study by the scholars of the two countries.
Merv, Khoi, Tabriz all had sizeable Buddhist populations and Buddhist priests arrived from India, Kashmir, Uighuristan as well as Khitay, North China. So these cities have own role and place in Il khanid Buddhist sites.
The next Buddhist influence in Ilkhanid dynasty mentioned by Rashid al-Din as follows;
Arghun Khan was highly devoted to the Bakhshi and followed their path. Arghun Khan constantly patronized and favoured them. One Bakhshi came from India and claimed to have lived a long time[19]. In order to show his favour, Arghun Khan built lofty idol temple at Khabushan in Kharasan, and he performed his duties in such way that all the bakhshis and monks were astonished by his degree of asceticism and rigor. The full extent of Buddhist temple building in Iran under the Mongols is lost to us. Historical records, however, documents a contemporary perception of a culturally prosperous, politically active Iranian Buddhism.
According to the Dr.Reuven Amitain Preiss and Dr. Charles Melville, Islamization of the Mongols may have been well advanced even before Ghazan’s conversion” [20]. Allamah al-Hilli was able to convert Oljaitu, the eight ruler of the Ilkhanid dynasty, into Shi’ism which led to proclaiming Shia Islam as the state religion.
According to some European scholars, conversion of Mongol khans into Islam was good for Muslim and as well as for Mongols to promote Shia Islam to the State religion of Iran and to continue Ilkhans’s power for long lasting period of time. Regarding the nature of Persian invasion, by Hulagu, Il khan, was different than others. Hulagu’s invasion was intended to stay for good in Persian countries. That is why all collected tax and wealth of Il Khanate dynasty devoted for development of economic reform and science achievement and new art, architecture of Ilkhanate Dynasty.
There is certainly, some impacts on other religious community when there were the Mongol Ilkhans’ conversion into Islam. In this connection I wish to refer to Donald N.Wilber[21] who mentioned in his book “ … Oljeitu( Өлзийт ) named his son Abu Sa’Id to be Governor of Khurasan, the latter having reached the ripe age of 9 years. In these same year, the situation of Nestorian community became increasingly precarious; for a year or two the Moslem nobles would burn churches and monasteries and then the ruler would halt these abuses and give presents and protection to the bishops. Tolerance, a Mongol virtue, was fading fast; it was the twilight period for Christianity in Iran and all the results of centuries of devotion, sacrifice and toil were to be swept away in the course of a few years”.
Cultural mapping; Buddhism in the Jami al-Tavarikh of Rashid al Din
The Jami al-Tavarikh, compiled by Rashid al-Din, was a unique product from the period of Ilkhanid Buddhism. Its first part, known as the “History of the Mongols”, was commissioned by Ilkhan Ghazan after his conversion to Islam in 1295. Ghazan khan himself was raised in Mongol Buddhist traditions shaped by teachers who hailed from Western Tibetan Region. It was Ghazan’s successor Il Khan Oljaitu (1304-1316) who commissioned the next volumes of Jami al-Tavarikh, which were produced in the Tabriz workshop, first in 1304 and extended the work to the world history.
Ilkhanid ruling was not easy and it faced with many problems. So some people put questions to public and one of them is as follows; How could the facts of the Mongol rule, with its cultivation of Buddhist teaching, a diverse Iranian Muslim elite, Diplomatic opportunities in Christian Western Europe, and military challenges from Mamluk Egypt be woven into a coherent world view under Ilkhanid rule?
Initially, Oljaitu, sponsor of the project, became Buddhist, then a Sunni Muslim who eventually moved toward Shi ism. When he contended that Ilkhan Ghazan’s Islam was superior to that of the Mamluks, he pointed to the Mongol’s assumed Buddhist genealogy as evidence of pedigree higher than that of the slave ruler of Egypt[22]. Learned Buddhist monks of Chinese and Kashmiri origin served as his consultants on scholarly, agricultural, and medical projects. Buddhist monks employed as historians at the Imperial library in Dadu maintained the “ Archives of the Court” known as the Dafartir-I Divan to Rashid al –Din through the assistance of Bolad[23], emissary from the court of Khubilai khan to Ilkhanate Dynasty. The western scholars call him as the Cultural messenger and informant to Rashid al-Din.Marco Polo himself passed through Tabriz around 1290, travelling sea and land routes from India during a time when Ilkhanid Buddhism was at its height under Ilkhan Arghun (1284-1291). The inventory of Polo’s and his uncle’s possessions at the time of their deaths list four “ Large golden tablet of authority , “ Gerege”, received at Ilkhanid court[24]. During that time Polo used the Mongol term Burkhan, meaning “Divine” when referring to the Buddha as Sakyamuni Burkhan .
Ilkhanid Buddhist concept of kingship and Karma (merit) offend a potent framework for organizing disparate histories. This would not be the first time that Buddhist-inspired concepts were put into Secular political service without direct acknowledgement.
Leo Jungeon Oh has noted numerous detailed examples of Buddhist iconography in Ilkhanid pictorial language found in “The Great Mongol Shahnama” the DiezAlbums, and the Jami al-Tavarikh”.
Reuven Amitai Pieiss had made the case that Ghazan’s Islam was a syncretistic faith that remained loyal to many of basic beliefs and customs of the Mongols and their Buddhist education even when these principles ran contrary to the faith of Islam[25]. Legal matters, rituals, marriage customs, and other practices continued to be governed by Mongol law, the Yasa.
It is interesting that after Ghazan ‘s conversion, when he gave orders to build or refurbish mosques in every village in his domain, he also ordered the endowment of fund at each location for maintenances of bird shelter, a practice that at that time was associated primarily will, Hindu and Buddhist attitude toward animals[26].
The Buddha in the land of 13th century, central Eurasia was a Mongol phenomenon of the Il khanid court;For almost 40 years Ilkhanid Buddhism had noteworthy levels of support through political and scholarly connections and functioned as the primary ideology of an Empire of exchange with transcontinental reach. I should note that Buddhist ideology was essential to Ilkhanid political and cultural reach.
Under the Mongol Ilkhans, Buddhism in Iran constituted a unique passage in both the history of Buddhism and Buddhism in making of an emergent modern world.
Regarding general attitude of Ilkhans religious policy, it was very secular and very equal to every religion which were approved by world scholars and scientists and politicians.
Bibliography
[1] Dr.Sh.Bira, The Mongolian Tengerism and Modern Globalism, published in journal of the Asiatic Society, Cambridge University press, 2004, pp 3-12
[2] The mission of Friar William of Rubruck, translated by Peter Jackson, London, 190, page 236
[3] Sh.Bira.Mongolian Tengerism, Ulaanbaatar, 2011, pp 26
[4] The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck, translated by Peter Jackson,London, 190, p236, the Hukluyt society.
[5] Teresa Fitzherbett. Religious diversity under Ilkhanid rule c.1300 as reflected in the freer Bal’am (text) article, Beyond the legacy of Genghis khan edited by Lind Komaroff
[6] A.C.Moule and P. Pelliot, Marco Polo, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957
[7] F.M.Hussain
[8] O.Nyamdavaa, Mongolia-Indian relations, Bhavan books and prints, New Delhi, 2003
[9] G.S.Upasak, Nalanda: Past and Present, 177,page 13
[10] Mongolia and India relations, by Dr.O.Nyamdavaa, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, 2007, p. 154
[11] O.Nyamdavaa.Il Khanate dynasty, Ulaanbaatar, 2015, page 34
[12] Chag Lo-tsa-ba, biography of Dharmasvamin, a Tibetan monk pilgrim
[13] Rashiduddin Farlulleh, Jami u’t –tavarikh, Pt 3.513
[14] O.Nyamdavaa, Il khanate dynasty ( Ил Хант улс), Ulaanbaatar, 2015, p104
[15] The artistic culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th-13th centuries by J.Giasi( Azerbaijan part ), Volume IV, 2013, page 251
[16] Kumirs – there is Kumari in Nepal, Kathmandu, young girl who is connected with Tenger, Heaven, stay in separate palace.
[17] Mongolian obas- I did not find any such Mongolian word- OBAS, also no such a Turkish word. But we in Mongolia have a word- OVOO which means stone cairn on the peak of Mountains, remaining from ancient time, wishing happy continued journey. People stop there and make three times around and make some offer to that Ovoo.
[18] The artistic culture of Central Asia and Azerbaijan in the 9th-13th centuries by J.Giasi( Azerbaijan part ), Volume IV, 2013, page 251
[19] Rashiduddin Fazlullah, Jami u T-tavarikh Pt .3.574
[20] Ghazan, Islam, and Mongol tradition; a view from the Mamluk Sultanate, by Dr.Reuven Amitai Preiss,Bulletin in of the School of oriental and Africa studies 59:1-10, 1996
[21] The architecture of Islamic Iran, The Ikhaniid period by Donald N.Wilber, Princeton , New Jersey,Princeton University Press, 1955
[23] Bolad Cheng San was sent by Khubilai Khan to Ilkhanid Dynasty as cultural messenger and to assist to Rashid al-Dun in his compiling his Jame ut Tawarikh. There is sayings that Bolad carried with him the” Altan Debter”, from Mongolia on Chinggis Khaan and his successors.
[24] David Jacoby, Marco Polo , his close relatives, and his trvel accounts; Some new insights” mediterrauean historical review 21, 2 (2006, 193-218.here203)
[25] Reuven Amitai Pieiss “ Ghazan, Islam and Mongol tradition; a view from Mamluk Sultanate, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African studies 59, 1 (1996). 1-10, here 9
[26] Devin Deweese. “ The influence of the Mongols on the religious consciousness of 13th century Europe” Mongol studies 5( 1978\ 1979), 41-8, here 59
About the author – Oidovyn Nyamdavaa
Prof. Dr. Oidovyn Nyamdavaa is the Director of the Center of Indian Studies in Mongolia. He is the former Ambassador of Mongolia to India. Since 1974, when he first started working as a diplomat serving in the Mongolian Embassy in India, Dr. Nyamdavaa has been doing research in the field of Mongolia-India relations.
(The views expressed in this article are that of the author Prof. Dr. O. Nyamdavaa)
